The schematic to substantive patterning of make in New Englishes: a Construction Grammar approach

Schneider’s Dynamic Model (2003; 2007) traces the different stages in the evolution of New Englishes in terms of identity-construction, norm-orientation and subsequent structural nativization. The lexis-grammar interface has often taken center stage in the analysis of structural nativization as it has been argued and shown to be particularly prone to innovation (e.g. Mukherjee, 2010). In an attempt to provide a systematic description of the changes that take place at the lexis-grammar interface at each stage of the Dynamic Model, Hoffmann (2014) adopts a Construction Grammar (CxG) approach to the description of lexico-grammatical nativization. Crucially, he argues that CxG is particularly well-suited for this description as it captures the lexis-grammar interface by positing a continuum in degree of generalization of constructions that ranges from schematic constructions (e.g. the ditransitive construction [Xsubj V Yobj1 Zobj2]) to (partially) substantive constructions (e.g. [Xsubj jog memory]) (Goldberg, 2006). Hoffmann (2014) thus exploits this continuum by translating the structural changes that take place at each stage of Schneider’s Model in CxG terms, i.e. in terms of changes at different levels of generalization in the constructicon. In so doing, he predicts that less advanced varieties in the Dynamic Model will rely more on partially substantive constructions, while more advanced varieties will rely more on schematic constructions and thus show greater variability in the instantiations of these constructions. In a corpus-based pilot study, Hoffmann (2014) shows this prediction to hold for the comparative correlative construction, but calls for further investigations in the same vein. Against this backdrop, this study takes a step forward in answering this call by analyzing the schematic to substantive patterning of the high-frequency verb make in Hong Kong, Indian, Singapore and British English, which form a cline from least to more advanced respectively in Schneider’s Model. High-frequency verbs make an interesting case study as they are generally associated with one particular schematic construction in CxG (e.g. make with the resultative construction), but are at the same time very versatile, both syntactically and semantically (Altenberg & Granger, 2001). The data come from the ICE-corpora and represent a total of 7,554 instances of make. In a three-pronged approach, this study analyzes (1) at the highest level of generalization, the distribution of make across schematic constructions; (2) at an intermediate level, the different formal realizations of these schematic constructions (e.g. [Xsubj make Yobj Vinf], [Xsubj make Yobj Vto-inf] for the causative construction); and (3) at a more substantive level, the collocations of make in certain slots of the most frequent constructions (e.g. the verb-slot in the causative construction). By analyzing the variability found at the second and third level, this paper seeks to test Hoffmann’s (2014) prediction that the more advanced varieties in Schneider’s Model rely more on schematic constructions than less advanced varieties. Based on preliminary analyses, it is hypothesized that this prediction may well be phenomenon-dependent and that in the case of the patterning of make, more variability is found at the more substantive levels of generalization for the less advanced varieties than for the more advanced varieties. References Altenberg, B. & S. Granger. 2001. The grammatical and lexical patterning of make in native and non-native student writing. Applied Linguistics 22(2), 173-194. Goldberg, A.E. 2006. Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalisation in Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hoffmann, T. 2014. The cognitive evolution of Englishes: the role of constructions in the Dynamic Model. In Buschfeld, ‎S., T. Hoffmann, ‎M. Huber and A. Kautzsch (eds.) The Evolution of Englishes: The Dynamic Model and beyond. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 160-180. Mukherjee, J. 2010. Corpus-based insights into verb-complementational innovations in Indian English. In Lenz, A.N. and A. Plewnia (eds.) Grammar between norm and variation. Frankfurt a.m.: Peter Lang, 219-241. Schneider, E.W. 2003. The dynamics of New Englishes: From identity construction to dialect birth. Language 79(2): 233-281. Schneider, E.W. 2007. Postcolonial English: Varieties of English around the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.