Can transphobia be benevolent? Theorization and empirical exploration of ambivalent transphobia

Ambivalent prejudice is a form of prejudice which manifests in both hostile and benevolent ways. Following its theorization in the study of sexism, it has been applied to several minority groups. While measures of hostile transphobia exist, there is yet to be empirical evidence of benevolent transphobia. Here we explored the potential presence of an ambivalent form of transphobia. Our main objective was to theorize the concept and identify the instances which could reflect benevolent transphobic attitudes. After this conceptualization, we identified 5 themes within this construct. We converted our initial themes into 20 items which could form a basis for a benevolent transphobia scale and used them alongside 13 items from existing hostile measures, to create a first version of an ambivalent transphobia scale. After a round of data collection (N=320), we evaluated the empirical validity of our theorization using exploratory factor analysis. Early findings do not seem to support a distinct form of benevolent transphobia. Instead, a subscale regarding the exclusion of trans people emerged, consistent with a previous theory which suggest that trans people are more likely to be outcasts and victims of social distancing.