Urban living in built environments, combined with the use of processed water and food, may not provide the microbial stimulation necessary for a balanced development of immune function. Many chronic inflammatory disorders, including allergic, autoimmune, metabolic, and even some behavioural disorders, are linked to alteration in the human commensal microbiota. Sedentary lifestyle is associated with reduced exposure to a broad spectrum of environmental micro-organisms and surplus energy balance, both risk factors of chronic inflammatory disorders. According to the Biodiversity Hypothesis, an environment with diverse macrobiota and microbiota modifies and enriches the human microbiota, which in turn is crucial in the development and maintenance of appropriate immune function. These issues were discussed in the symposium 'Chronic Inflammation, Lifestyle and Environment', held in Helsinki, 20-22 August 2014, under the sponsorship of the Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation. This paper briefly outlines the recent findings in the context of the environment, lifestyle, and health; discusses the forces that undermine immune tolerance in urban environments; and highlights the possibilities to restore broken immune tolerance among urban dwellers, summarizing the main messages in four statements and calling for actions to combat major public health threats.
Evans Gary W., McCoy Janetta Mitchell, WHEN BUILDINGS DON’T WORK: THE ROLE OF ARCHITECTURE IN HUMAN HEALTH, 10.1006/jevp.1998.0089
George Emma S, Rosenkranz Richard R, Kolt Gregory S, Chronic disease and sitting time in middle-aged Australian males: findings from the 45 and Up Study, 10.1186/1479-5868-10-20
Kriska A., Delahanty L., Edelstein S., Amodei N., Chadwick J., Copeland K., Galvin B., El ghormli L., Haymond M., Kelsey M., Lassiter C., Mayer-Davis E., Milaszewski K., Syme A., Sedentary Behavior and Physical Activity in Youth With Recent Onset of Type 2 Diabetes, 10.1542/peds.2012-0620
Louv R, Last child in the woods (2009)
Louv R, The nature principle (2012)
Yang Wu, Dietz Thomas, Kramer Daniel Boyd, Chen Xiaodong, Liu Jianguo, Going Beyond the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: An Index System of Human Well-Being, 10.1371/journal.pone.0064582
Bratman Gregory N., Hamilton J. Paul, Daily Gretchen C., The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health : Nature experience, cognitive function, and mental health, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06400.x
Rook G. A., Regulation of the immune system by biodiversity from the natural environment: An ecosystem service essential to health, 10.1073/pnas.1313731110
von Hertzen Leena, Hanski Ilkka, Haahtela Tari, Natural immunity, 10.1038/embor.2011.195
Haahtela Tari, Holgate Stephen, Pawankar Ruby, Akdis Cezmi A, Benjaponpitak Suwat, Caraballo Luis, Demain Jeffrey, Portnoy Jay, von Hertzen Leena, , The biodiversity hypothesis and allergic disease: world allergy organization position statement, 10.1186/1939-4551-6-3
Rook Graham A.W., Raison Charles L., Lowry Christopher A., Can we vaccinate against depression?, 10.1016/j.drudis.2012.03.018
Kolb H., Mandrup-Poulsen T., The global diabetes epidemic as a consequence of lifestyle-induced low-grade inflammation, 10.1007/s00125-009-1573-7
Jussila Airi, Virta Lauri J., Salomaa Veikko, Mäki Juhani, Jula Antti, Färkkilä Martti A., High and increasing prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in Finland with a clear North–South difference, 10.1016/j.crohns.2012.10.007
Karjalainen Eeva, Sarjala Tytti, Raitio Hannu, Promoting human health through forests: overview and major challenges, 10.1007/s12199-008-0069-2
Lederbogen Florian, Kirsch Peter, Haddad Leila, Streit Fabian, Tost Heike, Schuch Philipp, Wüst Stefan, Pruessner Jens C., Rietschel Marcella, Deuschle Michael, Meyer-Lindenberg Andreas, City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans, 10.1038/nature10190
Peen J., Schoevers R. A., Beekman A. T., Dekker J., The current status of urban-rural differences in psychiatric disorders, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01438.x
Bienenstock J., Collins S., 99th Dahlem Conference on Infection, Inflammation and Chronic Inflammatory Disorders: Psycho-neuroimmunology and the intestinal microbiota: clinical observations and basic mechanisms : Microbiota and the brain, 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2010.04124.x
West C. E., Jenmalm M. C., Prescott S. L., The gut microbiota and its role in the development of allergic disease: a wider perspective, 10.1111/cea.12332
Blaser Martin J., Falkow Stanley, What are the consequences of the disappearing human microbiota?, 10.1038/nrmicro2245
Cryan John F., Dinan Timothy G., Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour, 10.1038/nrn3346
Foster Jane A., McVey Neufeld Karen-Anne, Gut–brain axis: how the microbiome influences anxiety and depression, 10.1016/j.tins.2013.01.005
Messaoudi Michaël, Lalonde Robert, Violle Nicolas, Javelot Hervé, Desor Didier, Nejdi Amine, Bisson Jean-François, Rougeot Catherine, Pichelin Matthieu, Cazaubiel Murielle, Cazaubiel Jean-Marc, Assessment of psychotropic-like properties of a probiotic formulation ( Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Bifidobacterium longum R0175) in rats and human subjects, 10.1017/s0007114510004319
Rook GAW, The gut mictobiome and the nervous system, 61 (2013)
Shanahan Fergus, The gut microbiota—a clinical perspective on lessons learned, 10.1038/nrgastro.2012.145
Gao Z., Tseng C.-h., Pei Z., Blaser M. J., Molecular analysis of human forearm superficial skin bacterial biota, 10.1073/pnas.0607077104
Grice E. A., Kong H. H., Conlan S., Deming C. B., Davis J., Young A. C., Bouffard G. G., Blakesley R. W., Murray P. R., Green E. D., Turner M. L., Segre J. A., , Topographical and Temporal Diversity of the Human Skin Microbiome, 10.1126/science.1171700
Huang Yvonne J., Charlson Emily S., Collman Ronald G., Colombini-Hatch Sandra, Martinez Fernando D., Senior Robert M., The Role of the Lung Microbiome in Health and Disease. A National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Workshop Report, 10.1164/rccm.201303-0488ws
Gollwitzer Eva S, Saglani Sejal, Trompette Aurélien, Yadava Koshika, Sherburn Rebekah, McCoy Kathy D, Nicod Laurent P, Lloyd Clare M, Marsland Benjamin J, Lung microbiota promotes tolerance to allergens in neonates via PD-L1, 10.1038/nm.3568
Rakoff-Nahoum Seth, Paglino Justin, Eslami-Varzaneh Fatima, Edberg Stephen, Medzhitov Ruslan, Recognition of Commensal Microflora by Toll-Like Receptors Is Required for Intestinal Homeostasis, 10.1016/j.cell.2004.07.002
Abreu Maria T., Toll-like receptor signalling in the intestinal epithelium: how bacterial recognition shapes intestinal function, 10.1038/nri2707
Kubinak Jason L., Round June L., Toll-Like Receptors Promote Mutually Beneficial Commensal-Host Interactions, 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002785
Joenväärä Sakari, Mattila Pirkko, Renkonen Jutta, Mäkitie Antti, Toppila-Salmi Sanna, Lehtonen Mikko, Salmi Paula, Lehti Satu, Mäkinen Jarno, Sormunen Raija, Paavonen Timo, Renkonen Risto, Caveolar transport through nasal epithelium of birch pollen allergen Bet v 1 in allergic patients, 10.1016/j.jaci.2008.11.048
Round June L., O'Connell Ryan M., Mazmanian Sarkis K., Coordination of tolerogenic immune responses by the commensal microbiota, 10.1016/j.jaut.2009.11.007
Sagar Seil, Morgan Mary E, Chen Si, Vos Arjan P, Garssen Johan, van Bergenhenegouwen Jeroen, Boon Louis, Georgiou Niki A, Kraneveld Aletta D, Folkerts Gert, Bifidobacterium breve and Lactobacillus rhamnosus treatment is as effective as budesonide at reducing inflammation in a murine model for chronic asthma, 10.1186/1465-9921-15-46
Yang Yi, Torchinsky Miriam B., Gobert Michael, Xiong Huizhong, Xu Mo, Linehan Jonathan L., Alonzo Francis, Ng Charles, Chen Alessandra, Lin Xiyao, Sczesnak Andrew, Liao Jia-Jun, Torres Victor J., Jenkins Marc K., Lafaille Juan J., Littman Dan R., Focused specificity of intestinal TH17 cells towards commensal bacterial antigens, 10.1038/nature13279
Hanski I., von Hertzen L., Fyhrquist N., Koskinen K., Torppa K., Laatikainen T., Karisola P., Auvinen P., Paulin L., Makela M. J., Vartiainen E., Kosunen T. U., Alenius H., Haahtela T., Environmental biodiversity, human microbiota, and allergy are interrelated, 10.1073/pnas.1205624109
Fyhrquist Nanna, Ruokolainen Lasse, Suomalainen Alina, Lehtimäki Sari, Veckman Ville, Vendelin Johanna, Karisola Piia, Lehto Maili, Savinko Terhi, Jarva Hanna, Kosunen Timo U., Corander Jukka, Auvinen Petri, Paulin Lars, von Hertzen Leena, Laatikainen Tiina, Mäkelä Mika, Haahtela Tari, Greco Dario, Hanski Ilkka, Alenius Harri, Acinetobacter species in the skin microbiota protect against allergic sensitization and inflammation, 10.1016/j.jaci.2014.07.059
Sakaguchi Shimon, Miyara Makoto, Costantino Cristina M., Hafler David A., FOXP3+ regulatory T cells in the human immune system, 10.1038/nri2785
Vignali Dario A. A., Collison Lauren W., Workman Creg J., How regulatory T cells work, 10.1038/nri2343
Pfefferle Petra Ina, Pinkenburg Olaf, Renz Harald, Fetal Epigenetic Mechanisms and Innate Immunity in Asthma, 10.1007/s11882-010-0147-6
Barouki Robert, Gluckman Peter D, Grandjean Philippe, Hanson Mark, Heindel Jerrold J, Developmental origins of non-communicable disease: Implications for research and public health, 10.1186/1476-069x-11-42
Conrad Melanie L., Ferstl Ruth, Teich René, Brand Stephanie, Blümer Nicole, Yildirim Ali Ö., Patrascan Cecilia C., Hanuszkiewicz Anna, Akira Shizuo, Wagner Hermann, Holst Otto, von Mutius Erika, Pfefferle Petra I., Kirschning Carsten J., Garn Holger, Renz Harald, Maternal TLR signaling is required for prenatal asthma protection by the nonpathogenic microbeAcinetobacter lwoffiiF78, 10.1084/jem.20090845
Aagaard K, Sci Transl Med, 6, 237 (2014)
Funkhouser Lisa J., Bordenstein Seth R., Mom Knows Best: The Universality of Maternal Microbial Transmission, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001631
Rautava Samuli, Luoto Raakel, Salminen Seppo, Isolauri Erika, Microbial contact during pregnancy, intestinal colonization and human disease, 10.1038/nrgastro.2012.144
Patti Mary-Elizabeth, Intergenerational programming of metabolic disease: evidence from human populations and experimental animal models, 10.1007/s00018-013-1298-0
Burton T., Metcalfe N. B., Can environmental conditions experienced in early life influence future generations?, 10.1098/rspb.2014.0311
Morgan Hugh D., Santos Fátima, Green Kelly, Dean Wendy, Reik Wolf, Epigenetic reprogramming in mammals, 10.1093/hmg/ddi114
Shenderov B, Microb Ecol Health Dis, 25, 24145 (2014)
Parlee Sebastian D., MacDougald Ormond A., Maternal nutrition and risk of obesity in offspring: The Trojan horse of developmental plasticity, 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.07.007
Thorburn Alison N., Macia Laurence, Mackay Charles R., Diet, Metabolites, and “Western-Lifestyle” Inflammatory Diseases, 10.1016/j.immuni.2014.05.014
Veldhoen Marc, Brucklacher-Waldert Verena, Dietary influences on intestinal immunity, 10.1038/nri3299
Moens Emmanuelle, Veldhoen Marc, Epithelial barrier biology: good fences make good neighbours : Epithelial barrier biology, 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03506.x
Macia Laurence, Thorburn Alison N., Binge Lauren C., Marino Eliana, Rogers Kate E., Maslowski Kendle M., Vieira Angélica T., Kranich Jan, Mackay Charles R., Microbial influences on epithelial integrity and immune function as a basis for inflammatory diseases : Gut microbiota, epithelial integrity, and inflammation, 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2011.01080.x
Cani P. D., Amar J., Iglesias M. A., Poggi M., Knauf C., Bastelica D., Neyrinck A. M., Fava F., Tuohy K. M., Chabo C., Waget A., Delmee E., Cousin B., Sulpice T., Chamontin B., Ferrieres J., Tanti J.-F., Gibson G. R., Casteilla L., Delzenne N. M., Alessi M. C., Burcelin R., Metabolic Endotoxemia Initiates Obesity and Insulin Resistance, 10.2337/db06-1491
Everard Amandine, Lazarevic Vladimir, Gaïa Nadia, Johansson Maria, Ståhlman Marcus, Backhed Fredrik, Delzenne Nathalie M, Schrenzel Jacques, François Patrice, Cani Patrice D, Microbiome of prebiotic-treated mice reveals novel targets involved in host response during obesity, 10.1038/ismej.2014.45
Everard A., Belzer C., Geurts L., Ouwerkerk J. P., Druart C., Bindels L. B., Guiot Y., Derrien M., Muccioli G. G., Delzenne N. M., de Vos W. M., Cani P. D., Cross-talk between Akkermansia muciniphila and intestinal epithelium controls diet-induced obesity, 10.1073/pnas.1219451110
De Filippo C., Cavalieri D., Di Paola M., Ramazzotti M., Poullet J. B., Massart S., Collini S., Pieraccini G., Lionetti P., Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa, 10.1073/pnas.1005963107
Yatsunenko Tanya, Rey Federico E., Manary Mark J., Trehan Indi, Dominguez-Bello Maria Gloria, Contreras Monica, Magris Magda, Hidalgo Glida, Baldassano Robert N., Anokhin Andrey P., Heath Andrew C., Warner Barbara, Reeder Jens, Kuczynski Justin, Caporaso J. Gregory, Lozupone Catherine A., Lauber Christian, Clemente Jose Carlos, Knights Dan, Knight Rob, Gordon Jeffrey I., Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography, 10.1038/nature11053
Kolmeder Carolin A., de Been Mark, Nikkilä Janne, Ritamo Ilja, Mättö Jaana, Valmu Leena, Salojärvi Jarkko, Palva Airi, Salonen Anne, de Vos Willem M., Comparative Metaproteomics and Diversity Analysis of Human Intestinal Microbiota Testifies for Its Temporal Stability and Expression of Core Functions, 10.1371/journal.pone.0029913
Faith J. J., Guruge J. L., Charbonneau M., Subramanian S., Seedorf H., Goodman A. L., Clemente J. C., Knight R., Heath A. C., Leibel R. L., Rosenbaum M., Gordon J. I., The Long-Term Stability of the Human Gut Microbiota, 10.1126/science.1237439
Myles I. A., Fontecilla N. M., Janelsins B. M., Vithayathil P. J., Segre J. A., Datta S. K., Parental Dietary Fat Intake Alters Offspring Microbiome and Immunity, 10.4049/jimmunol.1301057
Eriksson Johan G., Sandboge Samuel, Salonen Minna K., Kajantie Eero, Osmond Clive, Long-term consequences of maternal overweight in pregnancy on offspring later health: Findings from the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study, 10.3109/07853890.2014.919728
Kau Andrew L., Ahern Philip P., Griffin Nicholas W., Goodman Andrew L., Gordon Jeffrey I., Human nutrition, the gut microbiome and the immune system, 10.1038/nature10213
Lax S., Smith D. P., Hampton-Marcell J., Owens S. M., Handley K. M., Scott N. M., Gibbons S. M., Larsen P., Shogan B. D., Weiss S., Metcalf J. L., Ursell L. K., Vazquez-Baeza Y., Van Treuren W., Hasan N. A., Gibson M. K., Colwell R., Dantas G., Knight R., Gilbert J. A., Longitudinal analysis of microbial interaction between humans and the indoor environment, 10.1126/science.1254529
Alenius Harri, Pakarinen Jaakko, Saris Ossian, Andersson Maria A., Leino Marina, Sirola Kristiina, Majuri Marja-Leena, Niemelä Jari, Matikainen Sampsa, Wolff Henrik, von Hertzen Leena, Mäkelä Mika, Haahtela Tari, Salkinoja-Salonen Mirja, Contrasting Immunological Effects of Two Disparate Dusts – Preliminary Observations, 10.1159/000176310
Ege Markus J., Mayer Melanie, Normand Anne-Cécile, Genuneit Jon, Cookson William O.C.M., Braun-Fahrländer Charlotte, Heederik Dick, Piarroux Renaud, von Mutius Erika, Exposure to Environmental Microorganisms and Childhood Asthma, 10.1056/nejmoa1007302
Heederik Dick, von Mutius Erika, Does diversity of environmental microbial exposure matter for the occurrence of allergy and asthma?, 10.1016/j.jaci.2012.01.067
von Mutius Erika, Vercelli Donata, Farm living: effects on childhood asthma and allergy, 10.1038/nri2871
Wlasiuk Gabriela, Vercelli Donata, The farm effect, or : when, what and how a farming environment protects from asthma and allergic disease, 10.1097/aci.0b013e328357a3bc
Ruokolainen L., von Hertzen L., Fyhrquist N., Laatikainen T., Lehtomäki J., Auvinen P., Karvonen A. M., Hyvärinen A., Tillmann V., Niemelä O., Knip M., Haahtela T., Pekkanen J., Hanski I., Green areas around homes reduce atopic sensitization in children, 10.1111/all.12545
Lynch Susan V., Wood Robert A., Boushey Homer, Bacharier Leonard B., Bloomberg Gordon R., Kattan Meyer, O’Connor George T., Sandel Megan T., Calatroni Agustin, Matsui Elizabeth, Johnson Christine C., Lynn Henry, Visness Cynthia M., Jaffee Katy F., Gergen Peter J., Gold Diane R., Wright Rosalind J., Fujimura Kei, Rauch Marcus, Busse William W., Gern James E., Effects of early-life exposure to allergens and bacteria on recurrent wheeze and atopy in urban children, 10.1016/j.jaci.2014.04.018
Fujimura K. E., Demoor T., Rauch M., Faruqi A. A., Jang S., Johnson C. C., Boushey H. A., Zoratti E., Ownby D., Lukacs N. W., Lynch S. V., House dust exposure mediates gut microbiome Lactobacillus enrichment and airway immune defense against allergens and virus infection, 10.1073/pnas.1310750111
Rook G. A. W., Raison C. L., Lowry C. A., Microbial ‘old friends’, immunoregulation and socioeconomic status : Microbes, immunoregulation and SES, 10.1111/cei.12269
Mulder Imke E, Schmidt Bettina, Stokes Christopher R, Lewis Marie, Bailey Mick, Aminov Rustam I, Prosser James I, Gill Bhupinder P, Pluske John R, Mayer Claus-Dieter, Musk Corran C, Kelly Denise, Environmentally-acquired bacteria influence microbial diversity and natural innate immune responses at gut surfaces, 10.1186/1741-7007-7-79
Lewis Marie C., Inman Charlotte F., Patel Dilip, Schmidt Bettina, Mulder Imke, Miller Bevis, Gill Bhupinder P., Pluske John, Kelly Denise, Stokes Christopher R., Bailey Michael, Direct experimental evidence that early-life farm environment influences regulation of immune responses : Farms influence immune regulation, 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2011.01258.x
Astell-Burt Thomas, Feng Xiaoqi, Kolt Gregory S., Is Neighborhood Green Space Associated With a Lower Risk of Type 2 Diabetes? Evidence From 267,072 Australians, 10.2337/dc13-1325
Mitchell Richard, Popham Frank, Effect of exposure to natural environment on health inequalities: an observational population study, 10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61689-x
Astell-Burt Thomas, Feng Xiaoqi, Kolt Gregory S, Does access to neighbourhood green space promote a healthy duration of sleep? Novel findings from a cross-sectional study of 259 319 Australians, 10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003094
Astell-Burt T, Feng X, Kolt G S, Greener neighborhoods, slimmer people? Evidence from 246 920 Australians, 10.1038/ijo.2013.64
Maas Jolanda, Verheij Robert A, Spreeuwenberg Peter, Groenewegen Peter P, Physical activity as a possible mechanism behind the relationship between green space and health: A multilevel analysis, 10.1186/1471-2458-8-206
Lachowycz Kate, Jones Andy P., Does walking explain associations between access to greenspace and lower mortality?, 10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.02.023
Lin Brenda B., Fuller Richard A., Bush Robert, Gaston Kevin J., Shanahan Danielle F., Opportunity or Orientation? Who Uses Urban Parks and Why, 10.1371/journal.pone.0087422
Hallal Pedro C, Bauman Adrian E, Heath Gregory W, Kohl Harold W, Lee I-Min, Pratt Michael, Physical activity: more of the same is not enough, 10.1016/s0140-6736(12)61027-7
Morris J.N., Heady J.A., Raffle P.A.B., Roberts C.G., Parks J.W., CORONARY HEART-DISEASE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF WORK, 10.1016/s0140-6736(53)91495-0
Lee I-Min, Shiroma Eric J, Lobelo Felipe, Puska Pekka, Blair Steven N, Katzmarzyk Peter T, Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy, 10.1016/s0140-6736(12)61031-9
Bruunsgaard H., Physical activity and modulation of systemic low-level inflammation, 10.1189/jlb.0505247
Yeh S-H, Regular tai chi chuan exercise enhances functional mobility and CD4CD25 regulatory T cells, 10.1136/bjsm.2005.022095
Moreira A., Delgado L., Haahtela T., Fonseca J., Moreira P., Lopes C., Mota J., Santos P., Rytila P., Castel-Branco M. G., Physical training does not increase allergic inflammation in asthmatic children, 10.1183/09031936.00171707
Panda Suchita, El khader Ismail, Casellas Francesc, López Vivancos Josefa, García Cors Montserrat, Santiago Alba, Cuenca Silvia, Guarner Francisco, Manichanh Chaysavanh, Short-Term Effect of Antibiotics on Human Gut Microbiota, 10.1371/journal.pone.0095476
Ferrer Manuel, Martins dos Santos Vitor AP, Ott Stephan J, Moya Andrés, Gut microbiota disturbance during antibiotic therapy : A multi-omic approach, 10.4161/gmic.27128
Pérez-Cobas Ana Elena, Artacho Alejandro, Knecht Henrik, Ferrús María Loreto, Friedrichs Anette, Ott Stephan J., Moya Andrés, Latorre Amparo, Gosalbes María José, Differential Effects of Antibiotic Therapy on the Structure and Function of Human Gut Microbiota, 10.1371/journal.pone.0080201
von Hertzen Leena, Haahtela Tari, Disconnection of man and the soil: Reason for the asthma and atopy epidemic?, 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.11.013
Prescott Susan L., Early-life environmental determinants of allergic diseases and the wider pandemic of inflammatory noncommunicable diseases, 10.1016/j.jaci.2012.11.019
Jawetz E, Melnick J, Adelberg E. Review of medical microbiology. Los Altos, CA: Lange Medical Publications; 1980. p. 99–100.
de Vos Willem M., Nieuwdorp Max, Genomics: A gut prediction, 10.1038/nature12251
Vaarala Outi, Is the origin of type 1 diabetes in the gut?, 10.1038/icb.2011.115
Abrahamsson T. R., Jakobsson H. E., Andersson A. F., Björkstén B., Engstrand L., Jenmalm M. C., Low gut microbiota diversity in early infancy precedes asthma at school age, 10.1111/cea.12253
Abrahamsson Thomas R., Jakobsson Hedvig E., Andersson Anders F., Björkstén Bengt, Engstrand Lars, Jenmalm Maria C., Low diversity of the gut microbiota in infants with atopic eczema, 10.1016/j.jaci.2011.10.025
Garn Holger, Neves Joana F., Blumberg Richard S., Renz Harald, Effect of barrier microbes on organ-based inflammation, 10.1016/j.jaci.2013.04.031
Pfefferle Petra Ina, Prescott Susan L., Kopp Matthias, Microbial influence on tolerance and opportunities for intervention with prebiotics/probiotics and bacterial lysates, 10.1016/j.jaci.2013.03.020
Haahtela T, A 10 year asthma programme in Finland: major change for the better, 10.1136/thx.2005.055699
Haahtela Tari, What is needed for allergic children?, 10.1111/pai.12189
Bibliographic reference
von Hertzen, Leena ; Beutler, Bruce ; Bienenstock, John ; Blaser, Martin ; Cani, Patrice D. ; et. al. Helsinki alert of biodiversity and health. In: Annals of Medicine, Vol. 47, no. 3, p. 218-225 (2015)
de Vos, Willem M
